Sciences & Technology
Extreme weather is Australia's new normal
What 174 years of bushfire records teach us about emergency management
Over the course of almost two centuries of settler fire history, a clear pattern has emerged – Victoria learns from fire
Published 2 June 2025
From the inferno of Black Thursday in 1851 to the devastation of Black Summer starting at the end of 2019, bushfires have a powerful legacy in post-European settlement Victoria.
These fires have not only shaped the physical landscape, but also the political, institutional and cultural responses to disaster.
Over the 174 years of bushfire history recorded by European settlers, the state has moved from fragmented, reactive firefighting to a more sophisticated, integrated and forward-looking system of emergency management.
But this transformation did not come quickly.
For much of the 19th and early 20th centuries, fire disasters were treated as unfortunate but inevitable acts of nature. Public scrutiny was limited and systematic reform was rare.
It wasn’t until the 20th century that bushfire disasters were examined through formal inquiry. And not until the aftermath of the 1939 Black Friday fires that Victoria saw its first landmark Royal Commission into bushfire management.
Since then, Victoria has built a powerful pattern of institutional learning.
Through repeated cycles of crisis, review and reform that included royal commissions, coronial inquiries and parliamentary reviews the state has developed a unique and evolving model of disaster response and preparedness.
Our three-year study has investigated the adaptions and changes to coordination, preparedness, prevention, accountability and responsibility over the course of almost 175 years of settler fire history.
A legacy of learning from fire
While the Black Thursday fires of 1851 were catastrophic, they were met with little official reflection.
For decades, bushfires were treated largely as a localised issue – managed by landholders, rural brigades or volunteers – with minimal coordination across government and little effort to draw statewide lessons.
Throughout the 19th century, government reports on forestry consistently pointed to the lack of fire-specific legislation as a major shortcoming in forest management
Although the first related royal commission was in 1901 following the Red Tuesday fires, its focus was on state forests and timber.
And while its outcomes were limited, the inquiry indirectly contributed to the eventual establishment of a State Forestry department and tighter regulations on the use of fire.
It would take several more decades – and an even more devastating fire event – for bushfire management to become a structured, statewide concern.
That shift began with the 1939 Black Friday fires, which killed 71 people and destroyed entire towns.
In response, the Stretton Royal Commission was established – the first major inquiry in Victoria dedicated solely to bushfire management. It marked a turning point, not only in how fire risk was understood, but in how institutions were expected to respond.
The Commission’s findings led to the creation of Victoria’s Country Fire Authority (CFA) in 1945 and laid the groundwork for modern bushfire governance.
In the decades that followed, other major fires prompted further reviews.
The devastating 1983 Ash Wednesday fires highlighted the need for improved inter-agency coordination, while the 2009 Black Saturday fires – considered the deadliest bushfire disaster in Australia’s history – triggered Australia’s most comprehensive review of emergency management to date.
The resulting royal commission produced 67 far-reaching recommendations, many of which significantly reshaped how the state plans for, communicates about and responds to bushfire risk.
A clear pattern has emerged: Victoria learns from fire.
This accumulated experience has helped build one of the most mature, integrated and adaptive emergency management systems in the world.
From reaction to proactivity
Historically, Victoria’s approach to bushfires was reactive.
Fires were met with urgency and bravery, but also confusion and poor coordination. Different agencies operated in silos. Lines of responsibility were unclear. Communication failures were common.
That model has been steadily replaced. Today, bushfire management focuses on what happens before a fire starts – through risk reduction, early warnings and prevention strategies that treat fire as a year-round challenge.
One of the more innovative developments in Victoria’s emergency management landscape has been the adoption of hybrid structures.
These are organisational models that bring together the public sector, civil society, business, and community groups to work collaboratively before, during and after disasters.
Hybridity recognises that the scale and complexity of modern bushfires demand cooperation across boundaries.
No single organisation has the capacity to manage these events alone.
We can see this approach in everything from joint training exercises between fire agencies and local councils, to shared resource agreements during fire events.
Community fire groups, for example, mean residents can assess local risk and plan together, while also linking directly into the formal emergency response system.
It’s a model of mutual reinforcement – where central authority and local knowledge combine.
Involving everyone in preparedness
Effective bushfire planning today also means inclusive planning.
Over the years, inquiries and reports have shown that some communities are disproportionately impacted by fire – and often underserved in preparedness and recovery efforts.
As a result, Victoria’s emergency management institutions have increasingly prioritised engagement with diverse communities.
Programs now incorporate input from young people, multicultural and multifaith groups, LGBTIQ+ communities and people with disabilities.
First Nations communities, whose land management practices have been historically sidelined, are also recognised as critical partners.
The revival of traditional burning practices provides valuable knowledge about how to manage fuel loads in ecologically sustainable ways – something Western fire management systems are only beginning to fully understand.
Public inquiries are instruments of change
Since the 1939 Royal Commission, public inquiries have become central to how Victoria responds to bushfire disasters.
But these inquiries do more than assign blame – they create the conditions for systemic reform.
They have helped reframe how risks are understood and who holds responsibility. Over time, this process has built a strong culture of institutional accountability, operational transparency and system-wide adaptation.
The recommendations that come out of these processes – whether it’s technical, structural or cultural – are typically taken seriously and implemented.
They have led to the development of national warning systems, improvements in evacuation protocols and clearer governance frameworks that define how agencies work together.
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An ongoing evolution of fire management
While Victoria has come a long way, bushfire risk continues to evolve.
Climate change is lengthening fire seasons, intensifying extreme weather and putting new pressures on land management and emergency response systems.
Urban growth on the fringes of cities and towns is creating new vulnerabilities, while changing patterns of volunteering and community capacity pose challenges to traditional fire services.
In response, Victoria’s emergency management system continues to adapt. It’s investing in technology, strengthening regional partnerships and testing innovative models of engagement.
But one thing remains constant: the state’s commitment to learning from its past.
Bushfire lessons for the world
The Victorian experience offers valuable lessons well beyond its borders.
It shows how repeated exposure to crisis can lead not to fatalism, but to institutional maturity.
It shows how diverse groups – public servants, volunteers, community leaders and scientists can work together to forge new models of resilience.
And it demonstrates that even after disaster, there’s opportunity to build systems that are more inclusive, more effective and more just.
For jurisdictions around the world facing increasing natural hazard risks, Victoria’s almost 175 years of settler fire history offers more than just cautionary tales.
This breadth of experience offers a roadmap for how disaster can become a driver for deep and lasting reform.
Banner video: Reuters